Confucianism and Taoism

Confucianism and Taoism are the two religions that are most readily associated with Chinese culture and the Eastern Asian world. Interestingly both have their origins in one of the most troubled times of Chinese history. Starting in 771 BC, when invading barbarians from the north pushed the Chow Dynasty out of the capital, this period of unrest stretched for 522 years (Welch,1965), characterized by the gradual decline of the Chow Dynasty, progressively powerless to the dukes ruling the regional states, and by the increase in the wars between them (Reacting, 2002). During the later stages of this period, know as the Era of the Warring States, the Chinese empire was plunged in a state of almost complete anarchy (Smith,1994 ). Amongst the destruction, two great teachers, Kung-Fu-Tze (Confucius) and Lao-Tzu would give birth to the teachings that would later become the foundation of Confucianism and Taoism respectively, spurred by the need to find solutions to the problems of their time.


Confucianism

Confucius was born around 551 BC and was one of many wondering teachers that would travel from state to state offering their services and ideas about how to improve rulership during this trying time (Reacting, 2002 ). He had had covered several insignificant government posts in his younger years, but soon abandoned government work in favor of tuition that he practiced for many years. His interest in government and in finding solutions would never abandon him, prompting him in his middle age to travel for thirteen years, giving unsolicited advice to state rulers and looking for the opportunity to put his teachings in practice. The opportunity never came (Smith,1994). He spent the rest of his years teaching to his students. It appears that he died thinking himself a failure. His ideas, though, were remembered by his devoted followers, and later recorded after his death in what is called the Analects (4th century BC). Other books are attributed to him, but historians argue that only the Analects reflects his ideas with authenticity (Reacting, 2002). His teaching were at first seen as subversive by emperors of the very short lived Ch'in Dynasty, but were later adopted by the Han Dynasty that replaced it. It was under the Han dynasty that Confucianism became established as the dominant school of thought among imperial officials, as a result of introducing a system of compulsory testing in Counfucius's philosophy in the selection criteria for government positions, a tradition that would continue for a long time to follow (Reacting, 2002).


The Teachings

Confucius' teaching are ethical in nature and concerned with the principles of good conduct, practical wisdom, and proper social relationships (Wu-Chi-Liu, 1997). His writings deal primarily with individual morality and the proper exercise of political power by the rulers (Gateway, 1999). His teaching were born of the observations of what had worked in previous historical periods and by the deliberate reinstatement of traditions, that he saw as the glue holding a society together. He kept continuity with the past, as well as reinterpreting and reformulating the ancient text and values, creating a deliberate and purposeful tradition aimed at grounding precise values of social ethics in the consciousness of the people, training them to behave morally almost as matter of routine (Smith, 1994).

The values at the very basis of Confucianism are primarily five:

• Jen -Ideal relationship. The ideal relationship of benevolence and human heartedness between individuals that is expressed through diligence in public life; courtesy, usefulness and empathy in private relationships.
• Chun Tzu- The Superior Person. The ideal way of being in relationships, centered on the accommodating of others rather than on self-gain.
• Li- Propriety. Confucius established a set of rules of behavior, through proverbs and maxims, to cater for all situations. Examples of these are the identification of role (such as father or ruler) and the name defining it with specific behavior attributes; the cultivation of balance, lack of excesses and compromise; the establishment of rules of conduct for the five constant relationships (parent/child, husband/wife, older sibling/younger sibling, older friend/younger friend, subject/ruler); the value of family and the reverence for old age. Li also has the meaning of ritual, and we find in Confucianism rituals for all occasions transforming every day life into a choreographed sacred dance.
• Te-Power. Rulership is achieved by co-operation rather than force. Cooperation is achieved by merit. The enlightened ruler operates through the power of moral example.
• Wen- The arts of Peace. Arts are valuable and especially in as much as they inspire the ennoblement of the human spirit. (Smith, 1994)

Although Confucianism is primarily a secular and ethical doctrine, aimed at addressing proper conduct and relationship within both private and social context, Confucius did acknowledge more traditionally religious aspects. He maintained the cult of the ancestors present in previous tradition and maintained the notion of Heaven and Earth. He also did believe in the presence of a benevolent power beyond all things. However he tipped the balance in favor of Earth matters, taking the focus away from Heaven, without denying its existence (Smith, 1994).

Taoism

Taoism on the other hand is less concerned with social ethics and takes a more mystical approach (Capra, 1991). Taoism is based on the teachings of the legendary figure of Lao-Tzu, as described within the Tao-Te-Ching and many other later sacred texts written by Lao-Tzu's followers. There are many legends surrounding Lao-Tzu and it is not quite proven how much of it is fact (Welch,1965). It appears he was born around 604 BC, making him a contemporary of Confucius. He was also a wondering teacher and it appears that Confucius and he met, as a result of Confucius's interest in Lao-Tzu's spreading renown (Smith, 1994). Confucius would have described him as an enigmatic man, larger than life and mysterious, much like a dragon (Smith, 1994).

Legend has it that, exasperated by his teaching efforts Lao-Tzu eventually fled to the West toward Tibet on a water buffalo to prepare to die and was stopped at the frontier by the guardian of the gate and requested to at least leave a vestige of his teachings (Welch, 1965 ; Smith,1994). Having stated for all this life that "the Tao cannot be taught", he was persuaded to write down his teachings for posterity (Feng&English, 1972) The result of it would be the Tao-Te-Ching, a book of roughly 5,000 characters, containing the true essence of Taoism and that is to this day one of the most influential texts of Chinese culture (Feng&English, 1972).

The teachings

The philosophy of the Tao-Te Ching revolves around the concept of the Tao, that translated means "The Path" or "The Way". Although a book about the Tao, it does not claim to teach it, as the Tao is ultimately unknowable from a Taoist prospective, transpiring a mistrust for conventional knowledge and reasoning that is stronger in Taoism than in any other eastern philosophy (Capra, 1975; Palmer, 1991). It is the subtle nature of the Tao that shifts Taoism into a more mystical dimension than the more practical philosophy of Confucius.

The word Tao assumes different meanings in different contexts. As "The Way of Ultimate Reality" it is seen to signify the unperceptible, unconceivable vastness, the womb from which all stems and to which all returns. This meaning of the Tao is at the foundation of the more philosophical version of Taoism practiced in China and is the one that has spread the most throughout the world. As "The Way of The Universe" it is seen to signify the immanent world, the rhythm and driving power in all nature. The rhythm of Life and the mother of the world. Interestingly in this context the Tao is seen as feminine, that is not surprising, as we will see later, that Taoist philosophy has a receptive and passive feminine quality in its ways of dealing with the world. As "The way of Human Life" it is seen as the flowing and harmonious way of living life that develops as a result of human life becoming in sync with the rhythm of the Universal flow (Smith, 1994; Palmer, 1991).

The way to approach life according to Taoist teaching is "Wu-Wei", which can be translated as "Inaction" or "Effortlessness". This is a particular kind of skill of energy conservation, via which results are achieved, with the least amount of resistance. A creative quietude of a life lived without excesses and with the least amount of conflict ( in Taoism all conflict is seen as an avoidable dispersion of vital energy). To live as if flowing like water, through and around obstacles, harmonizing opposites, minimizing conflicts is the way of Wu-Wei. (Smith, 1994; Cleary, 1991; Welch, 1965).

The concept of energy or Chi plays an important role in Taoism, seen as the flow of the Tao within the being and many practical aspects of Taoism are aimed at enhancing or tapping into this energy flow. Practices such as the Tai-Chi-Chuan, a Chi enhancing dance/exercise, acupuncture, the use of herbal remedies and healing and meditation techniques are all examples of ways to enhance the flow as are also the more shamanic magical practices of the more ritualized Taoist traditions (Smith, 1994).

Taoism approaches moral issue from a morally relativistic standpoint compared to Confucianism. As all polarities contain the seed of the other, as portrayed by the famous symbol of the Ying and Yang, and as ultimately all is Tao, Taoism is not interested in delineating positive or negative behavior but rather in the achievement of harmony between polarities, harmonizing conduct with nature and the natural Way. Where Confucianism sees structure, the Tao sees flow.

As Huston Smith states in his book The World's Religions: "Where Confucius' focus is the human, Lao-Tzu connects the human to what transcends it. As the Chinese themselves say, Confucius roams with society, Lao-Tzu wanders beyond. Something in life reaches out in all directions and Chinese civilization would have been poorer if either had not appeared"(Smith, 1994).

©2002- 2011 Katie Gallanti. All rights reserved. http://katiespapers.blogspot.com. This article was the final paper for the East West Psychology class on World Religions.

References

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Wu-Chi Liu, 1997. Confucianism. Retrieved from www.connect.net/ron/confucianism.html © 1997-2002